Keywords
Depression
Anxiety
Stress
Transcendental Meditation
How to Cite
Abstract
In a post-pandemic Perú, problems associated with the mental health of children have been highlighted and effective methods of intervention have been discussed. This study sought to examine: 1) current levels of depression, anxiety, and stress in Perúvian school children; 2) how these levels compare to other children in Latin America and elsewhere; 3) whether these levels are different when covaried for school, age, gender, and grade level; and 4) whether there are any indications that depression, anxiety, or stress are lower when Perúvian school children practice Transcendental Meditation.
For a group of 809 children from two schools using the DASS-21, findings indicate depression M = 6.79, anxiety M = 6.31, and stress M = 7.37. These data indicate somewhat elevated levels when compared to other pre-pandemic adolescents in Australia, Chile, China, and Malaysia, but were lower when compared to a group of similar-aged children at another school in China. Preliminary results also suggest lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress can be observed in children who practice Transcendental Meditation as part of the school curriculum. School, age, gender, and grade level did not predict these differences, although girls had higher levels than boys, a finding consistent with other research.
References
Azizoddin, D. R., Kvaternik, N., Beck, M., Zhou, G., Hasdianda, M. A., Jones, N., ... & Boyer, E. W. (2021). Heal the healers: A pilot study evaluating the feasibility, acceptability, and exploratory efficacy of a Transcendental Meditation intervention for emergency clinicians during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians Open, 2(6), e12619. https://doi.org/10.1002/emp2.12619
Bellehsen, M., Stoycheva, V., Cohen, B. H., & Nidich. S. (2022). A pilot randomized controlled trial of Transcendental Meditation as treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 35, 22-31. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22665
Cao, C., Wang, L., Fang, R., Liu, P., Bi, Y., Luo, S., ... & Olff, M. (2022). Anxiety, depression, and PTSD symptoms among high school students in China in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. Journal of Affective Disorders, 296, 126-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.09.052
Camacho, Á., Cordero, E. D., & Perkins, T. (2016). Psychometric properties of the DASS-21 among Latina/o college students by the US-Mexico border. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 18, 1017-1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-016-0415-1
Carranza Esteban, R. F., Mamani-Benito, O., Caycho-Rodriguez, T., Lingán-Huamán, S. K., & Ruiz Mamani, P. G. (2022). Psychological distress, anxiety, and academic self-efficacy as predictors of study satisfaction among Perúvian university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 2004. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.809230
Chen, C. Y., Chen, I. H., Hou, W. L., Potenza, M. N., O’Brien, K. S., Lin, C. Y., & Latner, J. D. (2022). The relationship between children’s problematic internet-related behaviors and psychological distress during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 16(2), e73. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000845
Contreras-Mendoza, I., Olivas-Ugarte, L. O., & De La Cruz-Valdiviano, C. (2021). Abbreviated scales of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (DASS-21): Validity, reliability and equity in Perúvian adolescents (Escalas abreviadas de Depresión, Ansiedad y Estrés (DASS-21): validez, fiabilidad y equidad en adolescentes peruanos). Revista de Psicología Clínica con Niños y Adolescentes, 8(1), 24-30. https://doi.org/10.21134/rpcna.2021.08.1.3
Dreyer, Z., Henn, C., & Hill, C. (2019). Validation of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) in a non-clinical sample of South African working adults. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 29(4), 346-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2019.1647499
Fergusson, L., Ortiz Cabrejos, J., & Bonshek, A. (2021a). Aymara childrens’ practice of Transcendental Meditation in Perú: A learning history model of parent and teacher perceptions. Journal of Latinos and Education, 2(3), 893-910. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2021.1876695
Fergusson, L., Ortiz Cabrejos, J., & Bonshek, A. (2021b). Health and school performance: A preliminary quantitative study of school children in Huay-Huay, Perú. Educación, 30(59), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.18800/educacion.202102.004
Fergusson, L., Ortiz Cabrejos, J., & Bonshek, A. (2022a). Examination of meditation practice by primary and secondary students in Perú: A confirmatory study of health and school performance. Revista Innova Educación, 4(1), 21-38. https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rie.2022.01.002
Fergusson, L., Ortiz Cabrejos, J., & Bonshek, A. (2022b). Health and school performance during home isolation at Institución Educativa Privada Prescott in Puno, Perú. Tapuya: Latin American Science, Technology & Society, 5(1), 2003004. https://doi.org/10.1080/25729861.2021.2003004
Fergusson, L., Ortiz Cabrejos, J., & Bonshek, A. (2023a). Accounts of home isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative, type 2 case study of Perúvian indigenous students. Revista Innova Educación, 5(1), 100-109. https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rie.2023.05.007
Fergusson, L., Ortiz Cabrejos, J., Bonshek, A., & Datey, A. (2023b). Wellbeing and indigenous Aymara orphans in Perú: An empirical study at Hogar de Niñas Virgen de Fatima de Chejoña, Puno. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, L(4), 4-29. https://doi.org/10.15453/0191-5096.4698
Fernandez-Canani, M. A., Burga-Cachay, S. C., & Valladares-Garrido, M. J. (2022). Association between family dysfunction and post-traumatic stress disorder in school students during the second COVID-19 epidemic wave in Peru. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, 9343. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159343
Gomez, F. (2014). A guide to the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Inner West Sydney Medicare Local.
González-Rivera, J. A., Pagán-Torres, O. M., & Pérez-Torres, E. M. (2020). Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity problem in Hispanics. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 10(1), 375-389. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010028
Grosswald, S. J., Stixrud, W. R., Travis, F. T., & Bateh, M. A. (2008). Use of the Transcendental Meditation technique to reduce symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by reducing stress and anxiety: An exploratory study. Current Issues in Education, 10(2).
Herani, G. M., & Kumar, A. (2015). Performance of Transcendental Meditation in Pakistan and suggestions in light of worldwide consciousness-based education (CBE) learning. Journal of Management for Global Sustainable Development, 1, 69-76.
Hernández-Yépez, P. J., Muñoz-Pino, C. O., Ayala-Laurel, V., Contreras-Carmona, P. J., Inga-Berrospi, F., Vera-Ponce, V. J., ... & Valladares-Garrido, M. J. (2022). Factors associated with anxiety, depression, and stress in Perúvian university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14591. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114591
Jong, M. C., Boers, I., van Wietmarschen, H. A., Tromp, E., Busari, J. O., Wennekes, R., ... & Vlieger, A. M. (2019). Hypnotherapy or Transcendental Meditation versus progressive muscle relaxation exercises in the treatment of children with primary headaches: A multi-centre, pragmatic, randomised clinical study. European Journal of Pediatrics, 178, 147-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-018-3270-3
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995a). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995b). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U
Ludwig-Walz, H., Dannheim, I., Pfadenhauer, L. M., Fegert, J. M., & Bujard, M. (2022). Increase of depression among children and adolescents after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 16(1), 109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-022-00546-y
Mejia, C. R., Alvarez-Risco, A., Mejía, Y. M., Quispe, S. C., Del-Aguila-Arcentales, S., Serna-Alarcón, V., ... & Yáñez, J. A. (2022). Stress, depression and/or anxiety according to the death by COVID-19 of a family member or friend in health sciences students in Latin America during the first wave. Sustainability, 14(23), 15515. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315515
Mellor, D., Vinet, E. V., Xu, X., Bt Mamat, N. H., Richardson, B., & Román, F. (2018). Factorial invariance of the DASS-21 among adolescents in four countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 31(2), 138-142. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000218
Nader, T. (2020). Foreword to volume 7. In M. Dillbeck, V. A. Barnes, R. H. Schneider, & F. T. Travis (Eds.), Scientific research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program: Collected papers, volume 8 (pp. xvi–xviii). Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Oei, T. P., Sawang, S., Goh, Y. W., & Mukhtar, F. (2013). Using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21 (DASS-21) across cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 48(6), 1018-1029. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.755535
Orgilés Amorós, M., Espada Sánchez, J. P., Delvecchio, E., Francisco, R., Mazzeschi, C., Pedro, M., & Morales Sabuco, A. (2021). Anxiety and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents during COVID-19 pandemic: A transcultural approach. Psicothema, 33(1), 120-130. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2020.287
Rider, E. A., Ansari, E., Varrin, P. H., & Sparrow, J. (2021). Mental health and wellbeing of children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ, 374, n1730. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n1730
Rosaen, C., & Benn, R. (2006). The experience of Transcendental Meditation in middle school students: A qualitative report. Explore, 2, 442-425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2006.06.001
Sinclair, S. J., Siefert, C. J., Slavin-Mulford, J. M., Stein, M. B., Renna, M., & Blais, M. A. (2012). Psychometric evaluation and normative data for the depression, anxiety, and stress scales-21 (DASS-21) in a nonclinical sample of US adults. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 35(3), 259-279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278711424282
Solmi, M., Radua, J., Olivola, M., Croce, E., Soardo, L., Salazar de Pablo, G., ... & Fusar-Poli, P. (2022). Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(1), 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7
Wendt, S., Hipps, J., Abrams, A., Grant, J., Valosek, L., & Nidich, S. (2015). Practicing Transcendental Meditation in high schools: Relationship to well-being and academic achievement among students. Contemporary School Psychology, 19, 312-319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-015-0066-6
Yıldırım, A., Boysan, M., & Celal Kefeli, M. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Turkish version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 46(5), 582-595. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2018.1442558
Zanon, C., Brenner, R. E., Baptista, M. N., Vogel, D. L., Rubin, M., Al-Darmaki, F. R., ... & Zlati, A. (2021). Examining the dimensionality, reliability, and invariance of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) across eight countries. Assessment, 28(6), 1531-1544. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119887449
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2024 Lee Fergusson, Javier Ortiz Cabrejos, Anna Bonshek