Keywords
Secondary Victimization
Blaming
Resuming the Relationship
How to Cite
Abstract
Many studies have been conducted so as to understand what causes women to remain in abusive relationships and the barriers encountered in the process of leaving. We aimed to investigate the secondary victimization behaviors of women who resume an abusive relationship. Participants were 261 people aged between 18 and 72 years (M = 32.06; SD = 9.96), mostly female (83.9%). Participants were asked to read a vignette that described the relationship between John and Mary. However, there were three relationship outcomes based on which we manipulated information about the victim's behavior. The participants answered the questionnaire containing the Secondary Victimization Scale of Women Victims of Marital Violence (SVS), as well as socio-demographic information. The results found indicate that the participants perceived the victim's suffering more, devalue her and avoid her when she resumed the relationship. We realized that men blamed and devalued the victim more than women. Men also perceived less the victim’s suffering than women. Thus, our study presented empirical results that, when we refer to women victims of IPV, they are more victimized when they leave and resume the abusive relationship, which is described as the most frequent behavior of women.
References
Adams, A. E., & Beeble, M. L. (2019). Intimate partner violence and psychological well-being: Examining the effect of economic abuse on women’s quality of life. Psychology of Violence, 9(5), 517-525. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000174
Aguilar Ruiz, R., González Calderón, M. J., & González García, A. (2021). Severe versus less severe intimate partner violence: Aggressors and victims: Https://Doi.Org/10.1177/1477370821995145
Anderson, D. K., & Saunders, D. G. (2003). Leaving An Abusive Partner: An Empirical Review of Predictors, the Process of Leaving, and Psychological. Well-Being, Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 4(2), 163-191. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838002250769
Bell, M. E., Goodman, L. A., & Dutton, M. A. (2007). The dynamics of staying and leaving: Implications for battered women’s Emotional well-being and experiences of violence at the end of a year. Journal of Family Violence, 22(6), 413-428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9096-9
Bermea, A. M., Khaw, L., Hardesty, J. L., Rosenbloom, L., & Salerno, C. (2020). Mental and Active Preparation: Examining Variations in Women’s Processes of Preparing to Leave Abusive Relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(3-4), 988-1011. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517692332.
Brazil (2012). Resolução Nº 466, de 12 de dezembro de 2012. Aprova diretrizes e normas regulamentadoras de pesquisas envolvendo seres humanos. Conselho Nacional de Saúde, Brasília. Disponível: http://conselho.saude.gov.br/resolucoes/2012/Reso466.pdf.
Brazil (2016). Resolução Nº 510, de 07 de abril de 2016. Dispõe dos princípios para pesquisas nas áreas das ciências humanas e sociais. Conselho Nacional de Saúde, Brasília.
Brickman, P., & et al. (1982). Models of helping and coping. American Psychologist, 37(4), 368-384. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.4.368
Bueno, S., & Lima, R. S. (2021). Anuário Brasileiro de Segurança Pública Sumário. Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública, 15.
CIOMS, OMS & OPS (2016). Pautas éticas internacionales para la investigación relacionada con la salud con seres humanos. Retrieved from https://cioms.ch/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/CIOMS-EthicalGuideline_SP_INTERIOR-FINAL.pdf
Chibber, K., & Krishnan, S. (2011). Confronting intimate partner violence: a global health priority | RTI. 78. https://www.rti.org/publication/confronting-intimate-%20partner-violence-global-health-priority
Correia, I. F. (2003). Concertos e desconcertos na procura de um mundo concertado: crença no mundo justo, inocência da vítima e vitimização secundária. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Fundação para a ciência e tecnologia.
Correia, I., & Vala, J. (2003). Crença no mundo justo e vitimização secundária: O papel moderador da inocência da vítima e da persistência do sofrimento. Análise Psicológica, 3(XXI), 341-352. https://doi.org/10.14417/ap.15
De keersmaecker, J., & Roets, A. (2020). All victims are equally innocent, but some are more innocent than others: The role of group membership on victim blaming.
Current Psychology, 39(1), 254-262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9763-9 Eckstein, J. J. (2011). Reasons for Staying in Intimately Violent Relationships: Comparisons of Men and Women and Messages Communicated to Self and Others. Journal of Family Violence, 26(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896- 010-9338-0
Estrellado, A. F., & Loh, J. (MI). (2019). To Stay in or Leave an Abusive Relationship: Losses and Gains Experienced by Battered Filipino Women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(9), 1843-1863. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516657912
Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública – FBSP. Anuário brasileiro de segurança pública 2021. Ano 15. São Paulo: FBSP, 2021.
Goodkind, J. R., Gillum, T. L., Bybee, D. I., & Sullivan, C. M. (2003). The impact of family and friends’ reactions on the well-being of women with abusive partners. Violence Against Women, 9(3), 347-373. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801202250083
Goodkind, J. R., Sullivan, C. M., & Bybee, D. I. (2004). A Contextual Analysis of Battered Women’s Safety Planning. Violence Against Women, 10(5), 514-533. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204264368
Harris, R. J., & Cook, C. A. (1994). Attributions about spouse abuse: It matters who the batterers and victims are. Sex Roles, 30(7-8), 553-565. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01420802
Hattendorf, J., & Tollerud, T. R. (1997). Domestic Violence: Counseling Strategies That Minimize the Impact of Secondary Victimization. 33(1).
Heim, E., Ajzen, I., Schmidt, P., & Seddig, D. (2018). Women’s Decisions to Stay in or Leave an Abusive Relationship: Results From a Longitudinal Study in Bolivia. Violence Against Women, 24(14), 1639-1657. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801217741993.
IAAP & IUPsyS (2008). Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists. Available from the International Union of Psychological Science Web site: https://www.iupsys.net/about/governance/universal-declaration-of-ethical-principles-for-psychologists.html.
ISP (2008a). Declaración de la Mesa Directiva de la SIP sobre Terápias de Conversión. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/sip-2008a-declaracion-sobre-terapias-de-conversion
ISP (2008b). Consideraciones Éticas de la SIP. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/sip-2008b-declaracion-sobre-principios-eticos
ISP (2014). Declaración de la SIP sobre Refugiados menores de edad en tránsito a los Estados Unidos. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/sip-2014-declaracion-sobre-ninos-migrantes-en-centro-america
ISP (2016). Declaración de la SIP de apoyo a psicólogas y psicólogos colombianos que promueven los acuerdos de paz. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/sip-2016-declaracion-apoyo-a-acuerdos-de-paz-en-colombia
ISP (2018). Position Statement of the Inter-American Psychological Society (SIP). Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/sip-2018-position-statement-on-immigration
ISP (2019). Declaración de la SIP sobre experticia de psicólogas y psicólogos en el campo de la salud mental y las ciencias del comportamiento. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/sip-2019-declaracion-experticia-en-salud-mental
Johnson, I. M. (1992). Economic, situational, and psychological correlates of the decision-making process of battered women. – PsycNET, 73(3), 168-176. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-31556-001
Kalmuss, D. S., & Straus, M. A. (1982). Wife’s Marital Dependency and Wife Abuse. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 44(2), 277. https://doi.org/10.2307/351538 Kim, J., & Gray, K. A. (2008). Leave or stay?: Battered women’s decision after intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(10), 1465–1482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314307
Kirkwood, C. (1993). Leaving Abusive Partners: From the Scars of Survival to the Wisdom for Change (1a). Sage Publications Ltd. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/leaving-abusive-partners-scars-survival-wisdom-change.
Lerner, M. J., & Simmons, C. H. (1966). Observer’s reaction to the “innocent victim”: Compassion or rejection? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(2), 203-210. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023562
Lesser, B. (1990). Attachment and situational factors influencing battered women’s return to their mates following a shelter program. In Research explorations in adult attachment (pp. 81-128). Peter Lang. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1991-97317-000
Martín-Fernández, M., Gracia, E., & Lila, M. (2018). Assessing victim-blaming attitudes in cases of intimate partner violence against women: Development and validation of the VB-IPVAW scale. Psychosocial Intervention, 27(3), 133-143. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2018a18
Mendonça, R. D. (2014). Crença no Mundo Justo e Vitimização Secundária: o papel do Comportamento Desviante na Adolescência. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/154173885.pdf
Niemi, L., & Young, L. (2016). When and Why We See Victims as Responsible: The Impact of Ideology on Attitudes Toward Victims. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(9), 1227-1242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216653933
Okun, L. (1986). Woman abuse: Facts replacing myths. State University of New York Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-97480-000
Osborn, M., & Rajah, V. (2020). Understanding Formal Responses to Intimate Partner Violence and Women’s Resistance Processes: A Scoping Review. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020967348
Pagliaro, S., Pacilli, M. G., Giannella, V. A., Giovannelli, I., Spaccatini, F., & Baldry, A. C. (2018). Legitimizing Intimate Partner Violence: Moral Evaluations, Attribution of Responsibility, and (Reduced) Helping Intentions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518760611
Peitzmeier, S. M., Malik, M., Kattari, S. K., Marrow, E., Stephenson, R., Agénor, M., & Reisner, S. L. (2020). Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 110(9), E1-E14. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305774
Policastro, C., & Payne, B. K. (2013). The blameworthy victim: Domestic violence myths and the criminalization of victimhood. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 22(4), 329-347. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2013.775985
Pugh, B., Li, L., & Sun, I. Y. (2021). Perceptions of Why Women Stay in Physically Abusive Relationships: A Comparative Study of Chinese and U.S. College Students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(7-8), 3778-3813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518778264
Rebelo, A. S., & Pereira, C. (2009). Com o mal dos outros posso eu bem! O Impacto da Crença no Mundo Justo, da Inocência da Vítima e da Categorização Social da Vítima na Vitimização Secundária e na Schadenfreude.
Rhatigan, D. L., & Street, A. E. (2005). The impact of intimate partner violence on decisions to leave dating relationships: A test of the investment model. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(12), 1580-1597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505280344
Serrano-Montilla, C., Valor-Segura, I., Padilla, J. L., & Lozano, L. M. (2020). Public helping reactions to intimate partner violence against women in European countries: The role of gender-related individual and macrosocial factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176314
Snell, J. E., Rosenwald, R. J., & Robey, A. (1964). The Wifebeater’s Wife: A Study of Family Interaction. Archives of General Psychiatry, 11(2), 107-112. https://doi.org/10.1001/ARCHPSYC.1964.01720260001001
Storer, H. L., Rodriguez, M., & Franklin, R. (2018). “Leaving Was a Process, Not an Event”: The Lived Experience of Dating and Domestic Violence in 140 Characters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518816325
Strube, M. J., & Barbour, L. S. (1984). Factors Related to the Decision to Leave an Abusive Relationship. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46(4), 837-844. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ311167
Summers, G., & Feldman, N. S. (1984). Blaming the Victim Versus Blaming the Perpetrator: An Attributional Analysis of Spouse Abuse. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2(4), 339-347. https://doi.org/10.1521/JSCP.1984.2.4.339
Valor-Segura, I., Expósito, F., & Moya, M. (2011). Victim Blaming and Exoneration of the Perpetrator in Domestic Violence: The Role of Beliefs in a Just World and Ambivalent Sexism. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 195-206. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev
Walker, L. E. (1979). The Battered woman syndrome. Harper & Row.
Walters, G. D. (2020). Predicting Future Intimate Partner Violence with Past Intimate Partner Violence: The Moderating Role of Proactive and Reactive Criminal Thinking. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(8), 943-955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854820921549
West, A., & Wandrei, M. L. (2002). Intimate Partner Violence: A Model for Predicting Interventions by Informal Helpers. Evidence-Based Emergency Medicine, 17(9), 972-986. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303674.ch59
World Health Organization, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Preventing intimate partner and sexual violence against women: taking action and generating evidence. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. 16 p.
Yamawaki, N., Ochoa-Shipp, M., Pulsipher, C., Harlos, A., & Swindler, S. (2012). Perceptions of Domestic Violence: The Effects of Domestic Violence Myths, Victim’s Relationship With Her Abuser, and the Decision to Return to Her Abuser. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(16), 3195-3212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512441253
Yamawaki, N., Ostenson, J., & Brown, C. R. (2009). The Functions of gender role traditionality, ambivalent sexism, injury, and frequency of assault on domestic violence perception: A study between Japanese and American college students. Violence Against Women, 15(9), 1126-1142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209340758
Yamawaki, N., Ostenson, J., Brown, C. R., Harris, R. J., & Cook, C. A. (2009). The Functions of gender role traditionality, ambivalent sexism, injury, and frequency of assault on domestic violence perception: A study between Japanese and American college students. Violence Against Women, 5(9), 1126-1142. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01420802
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2024 Jéssica Oliveira, Cícero Roberto Pereira